Reproducimos un
interesante artículo de John Feffer aparecido ayer en Tom Dispatch
(http://www.tomdispatch.com). El mismo
se refiere al difícil momento por el que atraviesa la europa neoliberal y
reaccionaria de esta última década. Vayan cambiando, chicos; no les queda mucho
tiempo.
Título de la
introducción: Tomgram: John Feffer, Europe's End?
Texto: Remember
the glory days of the 1990s, when our interconnectedness -- the ever-tighter
embrace of Disney characters, the Swoosh, and the Golden Arches -- was
endlessly hailed? It was the era of
“globalization,” of Washington-style capitalism triumphant, and the planet, we
were told, would be growing ever “flatter” until we all ended up in the same
mall, no matter where we lived. Only a
few years later in a twenty-first-century world that, from Ukraine to Libya,
Syria to Pakistan, seems to be cracking open under the strain of
religious-political conflicts of every sort, isn't it curious how little you
hear about that interconnectedness? And
yet, through time as well as space, we couldn’t be more linked (and not just
online), as the Charlie Hebdo murders and the response to them indicated.
Think of the
Parisian killers of that moment as messengers from the European past. After all, the place we have long called “the
Middle East” was largely a post-World War I European creation. The map of the area was significantly drawn,
and a number of the countries in the region cobbled together, by and for the
convenience of European colonial powers France and England. Jump slightly less than a century into the
future and what one set of powers created, a successor power, the last
“superpower” on planet Earth, helped blow a hole through in 2003 with its
invasion of Iraq -- and the damage is still spreading.
In the rubble of
American Iraq, that old European “Middle East” has collapsed in a paroxysm of
violence, chaos, and religious extremism (hardly surprising given the
circumstances). And on a planet that's
been “globalizing” since the first European ships with cannons appeared off the
coasts of Asia, Africa, and the Americas, how could that crumbling region not
send a message back to the world that created it? That message has been arriving regularly in
rusty cargo vessels, as well as in Islamic State videos aimed at the Muslim
communities of Europe, and two weeks ago in the outrages in Paris. Now, the Middle East is threatening to blow a
hole in Europe.
It’s a grim irony
that TomDispatch regular John Feffer, the director of Foreign Policy In Focus,
takes up today. The disintegration of
the Middle East is visibly blowing back on Europe and its hopes for an
integrated future. It will certainly be
blood-drenched years before we can hope to know what shape the post-colonial,
post-European, possibly even post-superpower Middle East might take. In the meantime, the shape of a Europe in
which the right (and in some places, the left) is rising amid an upswelling of
Islamophobia remains remarkably undetermined.
The European
Union, that great integrating experiment of the last century, may now, as
Feffer writes, be tottering. There is,
however, at least one new form of “integration” that might be emerging. In France (which, in seeming imitation, if
not parody, of the post-9/11 Bush administration, declared “war” on Islamic
extremism in the wake of the Charlie Hebdo killings), Belgium, Germany, and
possibly elsewhere, national security states built on the American model are
being strengthened in the American fashion.
We may, in other words, be seeing the sinews of a new, increasingly
integrated global security state taking form amid the ruins of the old Middle
East and at a moment when the European Union threatens to dissolve. Tom
***
Pasamos entonces
a la nota de John Feffer. Aclaramos que el término TINA, mencionado más abajo,
constituye el acrónimo de la frase “There Is No Alternative” (No Hay
Alternativa), que acostumbraba repetir la primera ministro británica Margareth
Thatcher. ¿A qué cosa no habría alternativa? Al neoliberalismo, chicos. En fin,
todo pasa. Por suerte.
Título: The
Collapse of Europe? The European Union
May Be on the Verge of Regime Collapse
Texto: Europe won
the Cold War. Not long after the Berlin Wall fell a quarter of a century ago,
the Soviet Union collapsed, the United States squandered its peace dividend in
an attempt to maintain global dominance, and Europe quietly became more
prosperous, more integrated, and more of a player in international affairs.
Between 1989 and 2014, the European Union (EU) practically doubled its
membership and catapulted into third place in population behind China and
India. It currently boasts the world’s largest economy and also heads the list
of global trading powers. In 2012, the EU won the Nobel Peace Prize for
transforming Europe “from a continent of war to a continent of peace.”
In the
competition for “world’s true superpower,” China loses points for still having
so many impoverished peasants in its rural hinterlands and a corrupt, illiberal
bureaucracy in its cities; the United States, for its crumbling infrastructure
and a hypertrophied military-industrial complex that threatens to bankrupt the
economy. As the only equitably prosperous, politically sound, and
rule-of-law-respecting superpower, Europe comes out on top, even if -- or perhaps
because -- it doesn’t have the military muscle to play global policeman.
And yet, for all
this success, the European project is currently teetering on the edge of
failure. Growth is anemic at best and socio-economic inequality is on the rise.
The countries of Eastern and Central Europe, even relatively successful Poland,
have failed to bridge the income gap with the richer half of the continent. And
the highly indebted periphery is in revolt.
Politically, the
center may not hold and things seem to be falling apart. From the left, parties
like Syriza in Greece are challenging the EU’s prescriptions of austerity. From
the right, Euroskeptic parties are taking aim at the entire quasi-federal
model. Racism and xenophobia are gaining ever more adherents, even in
previously placid regions like Scandinavia.
Perhaps the
primary social challenge facing Europe at the moment, however, is the surging
popularity of Islamophobia, the latest “socialism of fools.” From the killings
at the Munich Olympics in 1972 to the recent attacks at Charlie Hebdo and a
kosher supermarket in Paris, wars in the Middle East have long inspired proxy
battles in Europe. Today, however, the continent finds itself ever more divided
between a handful of would-be combatants who claim the mantle of true Islam and
an ever-growing contingent who believe Islam -- all of Islam -- has no place in
Europe.
The fracturing
European Union of 2015 is not the Europe that political scientist Frances
Fukuyama imagined when, in 1989, he so famously predicted “the end of history,”
as well as the ultimate triumph of liberal democracy and the bureaucracy in
Brussels, the EU’s headquarters, that now oversees continental affairs. Nor is
it the Europe that British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher imagined when, in
the 1980s, she spoke of the global triumph of TINA (“there is no alternative”)
and of her brand of market liberalism. Instead, today’s Europe increasingly
harkens back to the period between the two world wars when politicians of the
far right and left polarized public debate, economies went into a financial
tailspin, anti-Semitism surged out of the sewer, and storm clouds gathered on
the horizon.
Another
continent-wide war may not be in the offing, but Europe does face the potential
for regime collapse: that is, the end of the Eurozone and the unraveling of
regional integration. Its possible dystopian future can be glimpsed in what has
happened in its eastern borderlands. There, federal structures binding together
culturally diverse people have had a lousy track record over the last
quarter-century. After all, the Soviet Union imploded in 1991; Czechoslovakia
divorced in 1993; and Yugoslavia was torn asunder in a series of wars later in
the 1990s.
If its economic,
political, and social structures succumb to fractiousness, the European Union
could well follow the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia into the waste bin of failed
federalisms. Europe as a continent will remain, its nation-states will continue
to enjoy varying degrees of prosperity, but Europe as an idea will be over.
Worse yet, if, in the end, the EU snatches defeat from the jaws of its Cold War
victory, it will have no one to blame but itself.
The Rise and Fall
of TINA
The Cold War was
an era of alternatives. The United States offered its version of freewheeling
capitalism, while the Soviet Union peddled its brand of centralized planning.
In the middle, continental Europe offered the compromise of a social market:
capitalism with a touch of planning and a deepening concern for the welfare of
all members of society.
Cooperation, not
competition, was the byword of the European alternative. Americans could have
their dog-eat-dog, frontier capitalism. Europeans would instead stress greater
coordination between labor and management, and the European Community (the
precursor to the EU) would put genuine effort into bringing its new members up
to the economic and political level of its core countries.
Then, at a point
in the 1980s when the Soviet model had ceased to exert any influence at all
globally, along came TINA.
At the time,
British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and American President Ronald Reagan
were ramping up their campaigns to shrink government, while what later became
known as globalization -- knocking down trade walls and opening up new
opportunities for the financial sector -- began to be felt everywhere. Thatcher
summed up this brave new world with her TINA acronym: the planet no longer had
any alternative to globalized market democracy.
Not surprisingly,
then, in the post-Cold War era, European integration shifted its focus toward
removing barriers to the flow of capital. As a result, the expansion of Europe
no longer came with an implied guarantee of eventual equality. The deals that
Ireland (1973) and Portugal (1986) had received on accession were now, like the
post-World War II Marshall Plan, artifacts of another era. The sheer number of
potential new members knocking on Europe’s door put a strain on the EU’s
coffers, particularly since the economic performance of countries like Romania
and Bulgaria was so far below the European average. But even if the EU had been
overflowing with funds, it might not have mattered, since the new “neoliberal”
spirit of capitalism now animated its headquarters in Brussels where the order
of the day had become: cut government, unleash the market.
At the heart of
Europe, as well as of this new orthodoxy, lies Germany, the exemplar of
continental fiscal rectitude. Yet in the 1990s, that newly reunified nation
engaged in enormous deficit spending, even if packaged under a different name,
to bring the former East Germany up to the level of the rest of the country. It
did not, however, care to apply this “reunification exception” to other former
members of the Soviet bloc. Acting as the effective central bank for the
European Union, Germany instead demanded balanced budgets and austerity from
all newcomers (and some old timers as well) as the only effective answer to
debt and fears of a future depression.
The rest of the
old Warsaw Pact has had access to some EU funds for infrastructure development,
but nothing on the order of the East German deal. As such, they remain in a
kind of economic halfway house. The standard of living in Hungary, 25 years
after the fall of Communism, remains approximately half that of neighboring
Austria. Similarly, it took Romania 14 years just to regain the gross national
product (GDP) it had in 1989 and it remains stuck at the bottom of the European
Union. People who visit only the capital cities of Eastern and Central Europe
come away with a distorted view of the economic situation there, since Warsaw
and Bratislava are wealthier than Vienna, and Budapest nearly on a par with it,
even though Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary all remain economically far behind
Austria.
What those
countries experienced after 1989 -- one course of “shock therapy” after another
-- became the medicine of choice for all EU members at risk of default
following the financial crisis of 2007 and then the sovereign debt crisis of
2009. Forget deficit spending to enable countries to grow their way out of
economic crisis. Forget debt renegotiation. The unemployment rate in Greece and
Spain now hovers around 25%, with youth unemployment over 50%, and all the EU
members subjected to heavy doses of austerity have witnessed a steep rise in
the number of people living below the poverty line. The recent European Central
Bank announcement of "quantitative easing" -- a monetary
sleight-of-hand to pump money into the Eurozone -- is too little, too late.
The major
principle of European integration has been reversed. Instead of Eastern and
Central Europe catching up to the rest of the EU, pockets of the “west” have
begun to fall behind the “east.” The GDP per capita of Greece, for example, has
slipped below that of Slovenia and, when measured in terms of purchasing power,
even Slovakia, both former Communist countries.
The Axis of
Illiberalism
Europeans are
beginning to realize that Margaret Thatcher was wrong and there are
alternatives -- to liberalism and European integration. The most notorious
example of this new illiberalism is Hungary.
On July 26, 2014,
in a speech to his party faithful, Prime Minister Viktor Orban confided that he
intended a thorough reorganization of the country. The reform model Orban had
in mind, however, had nothing to do with the United States, Britain, or France.
Rather, he aspired to create what he bluntly called an “illiberal state” in the
very heart of Europe, one strong on Christian values and light on the libertine
ways of the West. More precisely, what he wanted was to turn Hungary into a
mini-Russia or mini-China.
“Societies
founded upon the principle of the liberal way,” Orban intoned, “will not be
able to sustain their world-competitiveness in the following years, and more
likely they will suffer a setback, unless they will be able to substantially
reform themselves.” He was also eager to reorient to the east, relying ever
less on Brussels and ever more on potentially lucrative markets in and investments
from Russia, China, and the Middle East.
That July speech
represented a truly Oedipal moment, for Orban was eager to drive a stake right
through the heart of the ideology that had fathered him. As a young man more
than 25 years earlier, he had led the Alliance of Young Democrats -- Fidesz --
one of the region’s most promising liberal parties. In the intervening years,
sensing political opportunity elsewhere on the political spectrum, he had
guided Fidesz out of the Liberal International and into the European People’s
Party, alongside German Chancellor Angela Merkel’s Christian Democrats.
Now, however, he
was on the move again and his new role model wasn’t Merkel, but Russian
President Vladimir Putin and his iron-fisted style of politics. Given the
disappointing performance of liberal economic reforms and the stinginess of the
EU, it was hardly surprising that Orban had decided to hedge his bets by
looking east.
The European
Union has responded by harshly criticizing Orban’s government for pushing
through a raft of constitutional changes that restrict the media and compromise
the independence of the judiciary. Racism and xenophobia are on the uptick in
Hungary, particularly anti-Roma sentiment and anti-Semitism. And the state has
taken steps to reassert control over the economy and impose controls on foreign
investment.
For some, the
relationship between Hungary and the rest of Europe is reminiscent of the
moment in the 1960s when Albania fled the Soviet bloc and, in an act of
transcontinental audacity, aligned itself with Communist China. But Albania was
then a marginal player and China still a poor peasant country. Hungary is an
important EU member and China’s illiberal development model, which has vaulted
it to the top of the global economy, now has increasing international
influence. This, in other words, is no Albanian mouse that roared. A new
illiberal axis connecting Budapest to Beijing and Moscow would have
far-reaching implications.
The Hungarian
prime minister, after all, has many European allies in his Euroskeptical
project. Far right parties are climbing in the polls across the continent. With
25% of the votes, Marine Le Pen’s National Front, for instance, topped the
French elections for the European parliament last May. In local elections in
2014, it also seized 12 mayoralties, and polls show that Le Pen would win the
2017 presidential race if it were held today. In the wake of the Charlie Hebdo
shootings, the National Front has been pushing a range of policies from
reinstating the death penalty to closing borders that would deliberately
challenge the whole European project.
In Denmark, the
far-right People’s Party also won the most votes in the European parliamentary
elections. In November, it topped opinion polls for the first time. The
People’s Party has called for Denmark to slam shut its open-door policy toward
refugees and re-introduce border controls. Much as the Green Party did in
Germany in the 1970s, groupings like Great Britain’s Independence Party, the
Finns Party, and even Sweden’s Democrats are shattering the comfortable
conservative-social democratic duopoly that has rotated in power throughout
Europe during the Cold War and in its aftermath.
The Islamophobia
that has surged in the wake of the murders in France provides an even more
potent arrow in the quiver of these parties as they take on the mainstream. The
sentiment currently expressed against Islam -- at rallies, in the media, and in
the occasional criminal act -- recalls a Europe of long ago, when armed pilgrims
set out on a multiple crusades against Muslim powers, when early nation-states
mobilized against the Ottoman Empire, and when European unity was forged not
out of economic interest or political agreement but as a “civilizational”
response to the infidel.
The Europe of
today is, of course, a far more multicultural place and regional integration
depends on “unity in diversity,” as the EU’s motto puts it. As a result, rising
anti-Islamic sentiment challenges the inclusive nature of the European project.
If the EU cannot accommodate Islam, the complex balancing act among all its
different ethnic, religious, and cultural groups will be thrown into question.
Euroskepticism
doesn’t only come from the right side of the political spectrum. In Greece, the
Syriza party has challenged liberalism from the left, as it leads protests
against EU and International Monetary Fund austerity programs that have plunged
the population into recession and revolt. As elsewhere in Europe, the far right
might have taken advantage of this economic crisis, too, had the government not
arrested the Golden Dawn leadership on murder and other charges. In
parliamentary elections on Sunday, Syriza won an overwhelming victory, coming
only a couple seats short of an absolute majority. In a sign of the ongoing
realignment of European politics, that party then formed a new government not
with the center-left, but with the right-wing Independent Greeks, which is
similarly anti-austerity but also skeptical of the EU and in favor of a crackdown
on illegal immigration.
European
integration continues to be a bipartisan project for the parties that straddle
the middle of the political spectrum, but the Euroskeptics are now winning
votes with their anti-federalist rhetoric. Though they tend to moderate their
more apocalyptic rhetoric about “despotic Brussels” as they get closer to
power, by pulling on a loose thread here and another there, they could very
well unravel the European tapestry.
When the Virtuous
Turn Vicious
For decades, European
integration created a virtuous circle -- prosperity generating political
support for further integration that, in turn, grew the European economy. It
was a winning formula in a competitive world. However, as the European model
has become associated with austerity, not prosperity, that virtuous circle has
turned vicious. A challenge to the Eurozone in one country, a repeal of open
borders in another, the reinstitution of the death penalty in a third -- it,
too, is a process that could feed on itself, potentially sending the EU into a
death spiral, even if, at first, no member states take the fateful step of
withdrawing.
In Eastern and
Central Europe, the growing crew who distrust the EU complain that Brussels has
simply taken the place of Moscow in the post-Soviet era. (The Euroskeptics in
the former Yugoslavia prefer to cite Belgrade.) Brussels, they insist,
establishes the parameters of economic policy that its member states ignore at
their peril, while Eurozone members find themselves with ever less control over
their finances. Even if the edicts coming from Brussels are construed as
economically sensible and possessed of a modicum of democratic legitimacy, to
the Euroskeptics they still represent a devastating loss of sovereignty.
In this way, the
same resentments that ate away at the Soviet and Yugoslav federations have
begun to erode popular support for the European Union. Aside from Poland and
Germany, where enthusiasm remains strong, sentiment toward the EU remains
lukewarm at best across much of the rest of the continent, despite a post-euro
crisis rebound. Its popularity now hovers at around 50% in many member states
and below that in places like Italy and Greece.
The European
Union has without question been a remarkable achievement of modern statecraft.
It turned a continent that seemed destined to wallow in “ancestral hatreds”
into one of the most harmonious regions on the planet. But as with the
portmanteau states of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia, the
complex federal project of the EU has proven fragile in the absence of a strong
external threat like the one that the Cold War provided. Another economic shock
or a coordinated political challenge could tip it over the edge.
Unity in
diversity may be an appealing concept, but the EU needs more than pretty
rhetoric and good intentions to stay glued together. If it doesn’t come up with
a better recipe for dealing with economic inequality, political extremism, and
social intolerance, its opponents will soon have the power to hit the rewind
button on European integration. The ensuing regime collapse would not only be a
tragedy for Europe, but for all those who hope to overcome the dangerous
rivalries of the past and provide shelter from the murderous conflicts of the
present.